Muscle Strength

    Researchedby:
    Mike Murray

    Fact-checked

    by:

    Louie Neri, Jeremy A. Alland
    Last Updated: January 31, 2023

    Muscle strength refers to the ability to produce force and is often measured using a 1-repetition maximum (1RM) test. Increases in maximum strength are best promoted by regularly lifting loads ≥ 80% of 1RM.

    examine-databaseExamine Database

    Muscle Strength falls under the Muscle Gain & Exercise category.

    52 references on this page
    19 participants in 1 trial

    What is muscle strength?

    Muscle strength refers to the ability to produce force against an external resistance.[8] It is often divided into specific types of strength, such as lower body strength or upper body strength.

    How is muscle strength measured?

    Strength is commonly assessed using dynamic resistance exercise,[9] which includes concentric (muscle shortening) and eccentric (muscle lengthening) muscle actions. The most popular method is a 1-repetition maximum (1RM) test,[10] which involves lifting as much weight as possible for one repetition using either free weights or an exercise machine. A higher-repetition maximum test (i.e., a 2–6 RM) may also be used to assess strength and estimate 1RM strength.[9]

    Another option is an isometric strength test, which involves producing a maximal force against an immovable resistance.[11] Unlike dynamic resistance exercise, the muscle length does not change during an isometric muscle action. Strong correlations have been reported between maximum dynamic and isometric strength.[10]

    What type of exercise is best for producing muscle strength?

    In accordance with the principle of specificity — which states that training adaptations are specific to the demands imposed on the body — heavy loads (≥ 80% of 1RM) are superior to lighter loads for increasing 1RM strength.[12][13] Training to muscular failure (i.e., the point at which another concentric repetition cannot be completed with proper form) is not necessary to increase muscle strength.[14] In fact, ending each set a few reps shy of failure appears to be superior to training to failure for maximizing gains in 1RM strength.[15][16] Also, rest intervals between sets should be at least 3 minutes.[17][18]

    How much volume do I need to perform to increase muscle strength?

    Why would keeping a few reps in the tank be better than training to failure for strength gains?

    Are periodized training programs superior for strength gains?

    Have any supplements been studied for muscle strength?

    Supplements marketed to enhance muscle strength typically claim to do so through one of the following mechanisms or a combination of them: increasing muscle contractile efficiency (e.g., by improving calcium handling in the sarcoplasmic reticulum), delaying muscular fatigue, increasing the availability of fuel sources (e.g., carbohydrate), and/or stimulating muscle protein synthesis.[19]

    The most effective supplements for increasing muscle strength appear to be creatine,[20] protein,[21] and caffeine.[22] Other supplements that have been studied for muscle strength include nitrate, citrulline malate, HMB, alpha-GPC, taurine, ashwagandha, and omega-3 fatty acids.

    How can diet affect muscle strength?

    Nutrition plays an important role in increasing muscle strength through fueling exercise and promoting recovery and exercise-induced adaptations. These processes are mainly influenced by protein and carbohydrate intake. Evidence suggests that a total daily protein intake of about 1.6 grams per kilogram of body weight is ideal for supporting increases in strength.[23][21]

    Muscle glycogen is a primary fuel source during resistance exercise,[24] and glycogen depletion is associated with muscle fatigue and impaired muscle contraction efficiency,[25] so consuming at least 3–5 grams of carbohydrate per kilogram of body weight per day is recommended to maximize strength gains.[23]

    With that said, many studies have not found differences in strength gains between higher- and lower-carbohydrate diets,[26] particularly when the resistance exercise routine includes low volumes (< 10 sets per workout), high loads (≥ 80% of 1-repetition maximum), and long rest periods (≥ 3 minutes of rest between sets). However, there is a lack of evidence demonstrating benefits of lower-carbohydrate diets for muscle strength.

    Does an energy deficit impair strength gains?

    Which other factors affect muscle strength?

    Differences in muscle strength between individuals seem to be mostly explained by differences in muscle mass,[27][28][29][30][31] which is supported by the mechanistic rationale that a larger muscle has greater force-generating capacity.[32] Other contributors to muscle strength include neural factors,[8] such as the threshold at which motor units are recruited and the motor unit discharge rate, and genetics.[33] Additionally, simply practicing the test used to examine strength (e.g., a back squat 1-repetition maximum) can promote increases in strength.[34][35]

    Examine Database: Muscle Strength

    What works and what doesn't?

    Unlock the full potential of Examine

    Get started

    Research FeedRead all studies

    Frequently asked questions

    What is muscle strength?

    Muscle strength refers to the ability to produce force against an external resistance.[8] It is often divided into specific types of strength, such as lower body strength or upper body strength.

    How is muscle strength measured?

    Strength is commonly assessed using dynamic resistance exercise,[9] which includes concentric (muscle shortening) and eccentric (muscle lengthening) muscle actions. The most popular method is a 1-repetition maximum (1RM) test,[10] which involves lifting as much weight as possible for one repetition using either free weights or an exercise machine. A higher-repetition maximum test (i.e., a 2–6 RM) may also be used to assess strength and estimate 1RM strength.[9]

    Another option is an isometric strength test, which involves producing a maximal force against an immovable resistance.[11] Unlike dynamic resistance exercise, the muscle length does not change during an isometric muscle action. Strong correlations have been reported between maximum dynamic and isometric strength.[10]

    What type of exercise is best for producing muscle strength?

    In accordance with the principle of specificity — which states that training adaptations are specific to the demands imposed on the body — heavy loads (≥ 80% of 1RM) are superior to lighter loads for increasing 1RM strength.[12][13] Training to muscular failure (i.e., the point at which another concentric repetition cannot be completed with proper form) is not necessary to increase muscle strength.[14] In fact, ending each set a few reps shy of failure appears to be superior to training to failure for maximizing gains in 1RM strength.[15][16] Also, rest intervals between sets should be at least 3 minutes.[17][18]

    How much volume do I need to perform to increase muscle strength?

    Low to moderate volumes are sufficient to promote increases in strength. A 2017 meta-analysis reported that performing ≤ 5 sets per week substantially increased strength, with slightly greater gains with higher volumes.[36] There was insufficient data to determine whether 10-12 sets per week produced greater strength gains than 5–9 sets per week.

    Other evidence indicates that performing 3–6 sets of 1–5 repetitions per week using loads ≥ 80% of 1-repetition maximum (1RM) and ending sets approximately 1–4 repetitions shy of muscular failure promotes meaningful increases in 1RM strength in resistance-trained individuals.[37]

    Higher volumes don’t appear to provide benefits beyond that of low to moderate volumes, and might even be detrimental for strength gains by causing greater amounts of fatigue and delaying recovery from exercise. A study in resistance-trained men found that performing flat barbell bench press and barbell military press three times per week for a total of 6 sets per week was as effective as performing 18 or 30 sets per week for increasing bench press 1RM, and performing barbell back squat, leg press, and leg extension three times per week for a total of 9 sets per week was as effective as 27 and 45 sets per week for increasing squat 1RM.[38] Similarly, a 1997 study in resistance-trained men found that performing 4 sets of upper-body presses once per week was as effective as performing 8 or 16 sets per week for increasing bench press 1RM, and performing 3 sets of quadriceps exercises per week was as effective as performing 6 or 12 sets per week for increasing squat 1RM.[39]

    A potential limitation of these studies is that the participants were instructed to perform each set to muscular failure. However, a meta-analysis currently in the preprint stage reported that lower-volume, lower-effort (i.e., sets were stopped further from muscular failure) resistance exercise programs produced similar (potentially greater) gains in lower-body strength than higher-volume, higher-effort programs.[16]

    Why would keeping a few reps in the tank be better than training to failure for strength gains?

    An increasingly common way to prescribe resistance exercise is to use a velocity loss threshold (VLT). The performance of resistance exercise according to a VLT means that once a certain percentage of velocity loss from the first repetition of a set is obtained, the set is terminated. For example, a VLT of 25% would mean that the individual stops performing repetitions once they complete a rep that has a velocity 25% slower than the first repetition. Consequently, a lower VLT typically means (depending on the load used and the individual’s first rep velocity) sets are completed further away from muscular failure than sets with a higher VLT. Evidence suggests that VLTs ≤ 25% are superior to greater VLTs for increasing strength.[15][16] Why might that be the case?

    One hypothesis for the superior effects of lower VLTs is mitigating muscle damage.[15] Training to muscular failure produces greater muscle damage and neuromuscular fatigue than ending sets a few reps shy of muscular failure.[40][41][42] Muscle damage negatively affects the recruitment of high-threshold motor units and the ability of muscles to produce force,[40] as well as motor skill learning.[43] It also delays recovery from exercise, which can lead to a reduction in training frequency and less exposure to the exercise(s) on which the individual is interested in increasing strength. Therefore, training to muscular failure can compromise increases in muscle strength, particularly for complex movement patterns, by impairing training quality.[15] By training with a lower VLT, an individual can lift heavy loads (≥ 80% of 1-repetition maximum; the most important factor for increasing strength) and practice the exercise of interest more often.

    Another hypothesis is that training with lower VLTs preserves muscle phenotypic characteristics that are favorable for maximum force-generating capacity.[15] One 8-week study found that training with a 40% VLT produced a reduction in the proportion of type IIX muscle fibers (the fastest and most powerful muscle fiber type) compared to a 20% VLT.[44] Because type II muscle fibers possess a higher force-generating capacity and generate force more rapidly than type I muscle fibers, training regimens that retain or increase the proportion of type II muscle fibers are theoretically superior for strength adaptations.

    Are periodized training programs superior for strength gains?

    Periodization refers to the manipulation of training variables over time or the long-term planning of training. Linear periodization (LP) is characterized by increasing intensity and decreasing volume (i.e., lifting heavier loads for fewer reps) over time. Undulating periodization (UP) is characterized by more frequent variations in volume and intensity than LP. Weekly UP (WUP) involves fluctuations in volume and intensity from week to week, whereas daily UP (DUP) involves fluctuations in volume and intensity from workout to workout.

    For example, consider a training program that involves performing resistance exercise twice per week for 8 weeks. Sample LP, WUP, DUP, and nonperiodized programs might look like this:

    Program typeSample exercises
    LP4 sets of squats using 70% of 1-repetition maximum (1RM) each workout for 4 weeks, followed by performing 3 sets of squats using 80% of 1RM each workout for 4 weeks
    WUP4 sets of squats using 70% of 1RM each workout in week 1, followed by performing 3 sets of squats using 80% of 1RM each workout in week 2; alternate between weeks 1 and 2 for the rest of the 8 weeks
    DUP4 sets of squats using 70% of 1RM in the first workout of the week and 3 sets of squats using 80% of 1RM in the second workout of the same week, for all 8 weeks
    Nonperiodized3 sets of squats using 75% of 1RM every single workout for 8 weeks

    A 2022 meta-analysis reported that periodized training programs were superior to nonperiodized training programs for increasing 1RM strength, with a trivial-to-small effect size reported.[45] Concerning the type of periodization, UP (which included studies that utilized either DUP or WUP) was superior to LP for increasing 1RM strength, with a trivial-to-small effect size reported. Additionally, UP was only superior to LP in studies featuring trained participants.

    Have any supplements been studied for muscle strength?

    Supplements marketed to enhance muscle strength typically claim to do so through one of the following mechanisms or a combination of them: increasing muscle contractile efficiency (e.g., by improving calcium handling in the sarcoplasmic reticulum), delaying muscular fatigue, increasing the availability of fuel sources (e.g., carbohydrate), and/or stimulating muscle protein synthesis.[19]

    The most effective supplements for increasing muscle strength appear to be creatine,[20] protein,[21] and caffeine.[22] Other supplements that have been studied for muscle strength include nitrate, citrulline malate, HMB, alpha-GPC, taurine, ashwagandha, and omega-3 fatty acids.

    How can diet affect muscle strength?

    Nutrition plays an important role in increasing muscle strength through fueling exercise and promoting recovery and exercise-induced adaptations. These processes are mainly influenced by protein and carbohydrate intake. Evidence suggests that a total daily protein intake of about 1.6 grams per kilogram of body weight is ideal for supporting increases in strength.[23][21]

    Muscle glycogen is a primary fuel source during resistance exercise,[24] and glycogen depletion is associated with muscle fatigue and impaired muscle contraction efficiency,[25] so consuming at least 3–5 grams of carbohydrate per kilogram of body weight per day is recommended to maximize strength gains.[23]

    With that said, many studies have not found differences in strength gains between higher- and lower-carbohydrate diets,[26] particularly when the resistance exercise routine includes low volumes (< 10 sets per workout), high loads (≥ 80% of 1-repetition maximum), and long rest periods (≥ 3 minutes of rest between sets). However, there is a lack of evidence demonstrating benefits of lower-carbohydrate diets for muscle strength.

    Does an energy deficit impair strength gains?

    A hypocaloric diet impairs muscle protein synthesis[46][47][48] and increases muscle protein breakdown.[49] It can also unfavorably alter the anabolic hormone response to resistance exercise.[50] Furthermore, prolonged consumption of a hypocaloric diet can facilitate endocrine system dysfunction, resulting in a suppression of reproductive and metabolic hormones and unfavorable alterations in markers of bone metabolism.[51] For these reasons, a hypocaloric diet would be expected to negatively affect muscle strength.

    However, a 2021 meta-analysis that compared the effects of performing resistance training in an energy deficit or without an energy deficit reported that, while an energy deficit impaired lean mass gains, it did not impair strength gains;[52] interventions that prescribed resistance training in an energy deficit and without an energy deficit both resulted in a large increase in muscle strength. Furthermore, the average energy deficit in the included studies was 567 kcal per day.

    A caveat to these findings is that the studies included in this meta-analysis were between 3 and 28 weeks long, with an average intervention duration of about 16 weeks. While the results suggest that increases in muscle strength can occur in an energy deficit in the short term, spending too much time in an energy deficit will undoubtedly compromise long-term strength gains. This stems from the fact that, as outlined in “Which other factors affect muscle strength?,” differences in muscle mass largely explain differences in muscle strength. Because an energy surplus enhances muscle gain (while an energy deficit impairs gains in muscle mass and can cause muscle loss), and a larger muscle has greater force-generating capacity, individuals interested in maximizing strength gains should spend a notable amount of time performing resistance training in an energy surplus.

    Which other factors affect muscle strength?

    Differences in muscle strength between individuals seem to be mostly explained by differences in muscle mass,[27][28][29][30][31] which is supported by the mechanistic rationale that a larger muscle has greater force-generating capacity.[32] Other contributors to muscle strength include neural factors,[8] such as the threshold at which motor units are recruited and the motor unit discharge rate, and genetics.[33] Additionally, simply practicing the test used to examine strength (e.g., a back squat 1-repetition maximum) can promote increases in strength.[34][35]

    References

    1. ^Brieger K, Schiavone S, Miller FJ Jr, Krause KHReactive oxygen species: from health to diseaseSwiss Med Wkly.(2012 Aug 17)
    2. ^Bjelakovic G, Nikolova D, Gluud LL, Simonetti RG, Gluud CAntioxidant supplements for prevention of mortality in healthy participants and patients with various diseasesCochrane Database Syst Rev.(2012 Mar 14)
    3. ^Ristow M, Zarse K, Oberbach A, Klöting N, Birringer M, Kiehntopf M, Stumvoll M, Kahn CR, Blüher MAntioxidants prevent health-promoting effects of physical exercise in humansProc Natl Acad Sci U S A.(2009 May 26)
    4. ^Gomez-Cabrera MC, Domenech E, Romagnoli M, Arduini A, Borras C, Pallardo FV, Sastre J, Viña JOral administration of vitamin C decreases muscle mitochondrial biogenesis and hampers training-induced adaptations in endurance performanceAm J Clin Nutr.(2008 Jan)
    5. ^Close GL, Ashton T, Cable T, Doran D, Holloway C, McArdle F, MacLaren DPAscorbic acid supplementation does not attenuate post-exercise muscle soreness following muscle-damaging exercise but may delay the recovery processBr J Nutr.(2006 May)
    6. ^Webb R, Hughes MG, Thomas AW, Morris KThe Ability of Exercise-Associated Oxidative Stress to Trigger Redox-Sensitive Signalling ResponsesAntioxidants (Basel).(2017 Aug 10)
    7. ^Horn A, Van der Meulen JH, Defour A, Hogarth M, Sreetama SC, Reed A, Scheffer L, Chandel NS, Jaiswal JKMitochondrial redox signaling enables repair of injured skeletal muscle cellsSci Signal.(2017 Sep 5)
    8. ^Suchomel TJ, Nimphius S, Bellon CR, Stone MHThe Importance of Muscular Strength: Training Considerations.Sports Med.(2018-Apr)
    9. ^Suchomel TJ, Nimphius S, Stone MHThe Importance of Muscular Strength in Athletic PerformanceSports Med.(2016 Oct)
    10. ^McMaster DT, Gill N, Cronin J, McGuigan MA brief review of strength and ballistic assessment methodologies in sport.Sports Med.(2014-May)
    11. ^Wilson GJ, Murphy AJThe use of isometric tests of muscular function in athletic assessment.Sports Med.(1996-Jul)
    12. ^Carvalho L, Junior RM, Barreira J, Schoenfeld BJ, Orazem J, Barroso RMuscle hypertrophy and strength gains after resistance training with different volume-matched loads: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Appl Physiol Nutr Metab.(2022-Apr)
    13. ^Pedro Lopez, Regis Radaelli, Dennis R Taaffe, Robert U Newton, Daniel A Galvão, Gabriel S Trajano, Juliana Teodoro, William J Kraemer, Keijo Häkkinen, Ronei S PintoResistance Training Load Effects on Muscle Hypertrophy and Strength Gain: Systematic Review and Network Meta-analysisMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2020 Dec 26)
    14. ^Grgic J, Schoenfeld BJ, Orazem J, Sabol FEffects of resistance training performed to repetition failure or non-failure on muscular strength and hypertrophy: A systematic review and meta-analysis.J Sport Health Sci.(2022-03)
    15. ^Hickmott LM, Chilibeck PD, Shaw KA, Butcher SJThe Effect of Load and Volume Autoregulation on Muscular Strength and Hypertrophy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.Sports Med Open.(2022-Jan-15)
    16. ^Gantois et alThe effects of different intra-set velocity loss thresholds on lower-limb adaptations to resistance training in young adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis(2021-06)
    17. ^DE Camargo JBB, Brigatto FA, Zaroni RS, Trindade TB, Germano MD, Junior ACT, DE Oliveira TP, Marchetti PH, Prestes J, Lopes CRManipulating Resistance Training Variables to Induce Muscle Strength and Hypertrophy: A Brief Narrative Review.Int J Exerc Sci.(2022)
    18. ^American College of Sports MedicineAmerican College of Sports Medicine position stand. Progression models in resistance training for healthy adultsMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2009 Mar)
    19. ^Gonzalez et al\journal=Strength and Conditioning JournalEmerging Nutritional Supplements for Strength and Hypertrophy: An Update of the Current Literature(2020-10)
    20. ^Wax B, Kerksick CM, Jagim AR, Mayo JJ, Lyons BC, Kreider RBCreatine for Exercise and Sports Performance, with Recovery Considerations for Healthy Populations.Nutrients.(2021-Jun-02)
    21. ^Morton RW, Murphy KT, McKellar SR, Schoenfeld BJ, Henselmans M, Helms E, Aragon AA, Devries MC, Banfield L, Krieger JW, Phillips SMA systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression of the effect of protein supplementation on resistance training-induced gains in muscle mass and strength in healthy adultsBr J Sports Med.(2018 Mar)
    22. ^Grgic JEffects of Caffeine on Resistance Exercise: A Review of Recent Research.Sports Med.(2021-11)
    23. ^Slater G, Phillips SMNutrition guidelines for strength sports: sprinting, weightlifting, throwing events, and bodybuilding.J Sports Sci.(2011)
    24. ^Lambert CP, Flynn MGFatigue during high-intensity intermittent exercise: application to bodybuilding.Sports Med.(2002)
    25. ^Jeppe F Vigh-Larsen, Niels Ørtenblad, Lawrence L Spriet, Kristian Overgaard, Magni MohrMuscle Glycogen Metabolism and High-Intensity Exercise Performance: A Narrative ReviewSports Med.(2021 Sep)
    26. ^Henselmans M, Bjørnsen T, Hedderman R, Vårvik FTThe Effect of Carbohydrate Intake on Strength and Resistance Training Performance: A Systematic Review.Nutrients.(2022-Feb-18)
    27. ^Casolo A, Del Vecchio A, Balshaw TG, Maeo S, Lanza MB, Felici F, Folland JP, Farina DBehavior of motor units during submaximal isometric contractions in chronically strength-trained individuals.J Appl Physiol (1985).(2021-Nov-01)
    28. ^Ferrari L, Colosio AL, Teso M, Pogliaghi SPerformance and Anthropometrics of Classic Powerlifters: Which Characteristics Matter?J Strength Cond Res.(2022-Apr-01)
    29. ^Brechue WF, Abe TThe role of FFM accumulation and skeletal muscle architecture in powerlifting performance.Eur J Appl Physiol.(2002-Feb)
    30. ^Blazevich AJ, Coleman DR, Horne S, Cannavan DAnatomical predictors of maximum isometric and concentric knee extensor moment.Eur J Appl Physiol.(2009-Apr)
    31. ^Siahkouhian and HedayatnejaCorrelations of Anthropometric and Body Composition Variables with the Performance of Young Elite WeightliftersJournal of Human Kinetics.(2009-01)
    32. ^Taber CB, Vigotsky A, Nuckols G, Haun CTExercise-Induced Myofibrillar Hypertrophy is a Contributory Cause of Gains in Muscle StrengthSports Med.(2019 Jul)
    33. ^Appel M, Zentgraf K, Krüger K, Alack KEffects of Genetic Variation on Endurance Performance, Muscle Strength, and Injury Susceptibility in Sports: A Systematic Review.Front Physiol.(2021)
    34. ^Mattocks KT, Buckner SL, Jessee MB, Dankel SJ, Mouser JG, Loenneke JPPracticing the Test Produces Strength Equivalent to Higher Volume Training.Med Sci Sports Exerc.(2017-Sep)
    35. ^Dankel SJ, Counts BR, Barnett BE, Buckner SL, Abe T, Loenneke JPMuscle adaptations following 21 consecutive days of strength test familiarization compared with traditional training.Muscle Nerve.(2017-Aug)
    36. ^Grant W Ralston, Lon Kilgore, Frank B Wyatt, Julien S BakerThe Effect of Weekly Set Volume on Strength Gain: A Meta-AnalysisSports Med.(2017 Dec)
    37. ^Androulakis-Korakakis P, Michalopoulos N, Fisher JP, Keogh J, Loenneke JP, Helms E, Wolf M, Nuckols G, Steele JThe Minimum Effective Training Dose Required for 1RM Strength in Powerlifters.Front Sports Act Living.(2021)
    38. ^Schoenfeld BJ, Contreras B, Krieger J, Grgic J, Delcastillo K, Belliard R, Alto AResistance Training Volume Enhances Muscle Hypertrophy but Not Strength in Trained Men.Med Sci Sports Exerc.(2019-01)
    39. ^Ostrowski et alThe Effect of Weight Training Volume on Hormonal Output and Muscular Size and FunctionThe Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research.(1997-08)
    40. ^Pareja-Blanco F, Rodríguez-Rosell D, Aagaard P, Sánchez-Medina L, Ribas-Serna J, Mora-Custodio R, Otero-Esquina C, Yáñez-García JM, González-Badillo JJTime Course of Recovery From Resistance Exercise With Different Set Configurations.J Strength Cond Res.(2020-Oct)
    41. ^Morán-Navarro R, Pérez CE, Mora-Rodríguez R, de la Cruz-Sánchez E, González-Badillo JJ, Sánchez-Medina L, Pallarés JGTime course of recovery following resistance training leading or not to failure.Eur J Appl Physiol.(2017-Dec)
    42. ^Fernando Pareja-Blanco, Antonio Villalba-Fernández, Pedro J Cornejo-Daza, Juan Sánchez-Valdepeñas, Juan José González-BadilloTime Course of Recovery Following Resistance Exercise with Different Loading Magnitudes and Velocity Loss in the SetSports (Basel).(2019 Mar 4)
    43. ^Leite CMF, Profeta VLDS, Chaves SFN, Benine RPC, Bottaro M, Ferreira-Júnior JBDoes exercise-induced muscle damage impair subsequent motor skill learning?Hum Mov Sci.(2019-Oct)
    44. ^Pareja-Blanco F, Rodríguez-Rosell D, Sánchez-Medina L, Sanchis-Moysi J, Dorado C, Mora-Custodio R, Yáñez-García JM, Morales-Alamo D, Pérez-Suárez I, Calbet JAL, González-Badillo JJEffects of velocity loss during resistance training on athletic performance, strength gains and muscle adaptations.Scand J Med Sci Sports.(2017-Jul)
    45. ^Moesgaard L, Beck MM, Christiansen L, Aagaard P, Lundbye-Jensen JEffects of Periodization on Strength and Muscle Hypertrophy in Volume-Equated Resistance Training Programs: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.Sports Med.(2022-Jul)
    46. ^Stefan M Pasiakos, Lisa M Vislocky, John W Carbone, Nicholas Altieri, Karen Konopelski, Hedley C Freake, Jeffrey M Anderson, Arny A Ferrando, Robert R Wolfe, Nancy R RodriguezAcute energy deprivation affects skeletal muscle protein synthesis and associated intracellular signaling proteins in physically active adultsJ Nutr.(2010 Apr)
    47. ^Hector AJ, McGlory C, Damas F, Mazara N, Baker SK, Phillips SMPronounced energy restriction with elevated protein intake results in no change in proteolysis and reductions in skeletal muscle protein synthesis that are mitigated by resistance exercise.FASEB J.(2018-Jan)
    48. ^José L Areta, Louise M Burke, Donny M Camera, Daniel W D West, Siobhan Crawshay, Daniel R Moore, Trent Stellingwerff, Stuart M Phillips, John A Hawley, Vernon G CoffeyReduced resting skeletal muscle protein synthesis is rescued by resistance exercise and protein ingestion following short-term energy deficitAm J Physiol Endocrinol Metab.(2014 Apr 15)
    49. ^John W Carbone, Stefan M Pasiakos, Lisa M Vislocky, Jeffrey M Anderson, Nancy R RodriguezEffects of short-term energy deficit on muscle protein breakdown and intramuscular proteolysis in normal-weight young adultsAppl Physiol Nutr Metab.(2014 Aug)
    50. ^Chaise Murphy, Karsten KoehlerCaloric restriction induces anabolic resistance to resistance exerciseEur J Appl Physiol.(2020 May)
    51. ^José L Areta, Harry L Taylor, Karsten KoehlerLow energy availability: history, definition and evidence of its endocrine, metabolic and physiological effects in prospective studies in females and malesEur J Appl Physiol.(2021 Jan)
    52. ^Chaise Murphy, Karsten KoehlerEnergy deficiency impairs resistance training gains in lean mass but not strength: A meta-analysis and meta-regressionScand J Med Sci Sports.(2021 Oct 8)

    Examine Database References